The content that follows describes the competencies for teachers based on the National Professional Standards.

Teachers’ Knowledge

Teachers ought to reconsider the subject matter of a given discipline in light of the lifestyles of their students. Teachers need to understand their students and the topic matter in order to communicate effectively. Both the subject matter they are responsible for and the disciplines from which their teaching material may be drawn should be known by the instructors.

Comprehension of the Subject Matter

Prospective teachers should be knowledgeable about the subject matter. They must to be fully informed about the National Curriculum framework for the topic area they are studying. They must to be aware of the various learning theories and the methods used to acquire knowledge. They should be familiar with the organisation of many domains, including the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains, as well as the historical evolution of theoretical conceptions. Additionally, they should be aware of how subject matter and teaching methods are changing in order to impart discipline. They ought to be able to describe how one discipline relates to another.

Knowledge of Human Growth and Development

Teachers should be aware of many learning theories in order to comprehend how students build their knowledge, learn new abilities, and form mental habits. Individual experiences, aptitude, and past education, as well as language, culture, family, and community beliefs, all have an impact on a student’s learning style. They should be able to recognise each student’s unique characteristics and developmental capacities, which may include learning disparities, cultural and socioemotional variances, unique emotional or physical difficulties, and exceptionalities in gifted and talented children. They should be aware of the various learning styles and motivating techniques in order to succeed. They should be aware of the procedures and abilities that support students in acquiring the information, abilities, and dispositions necessary for reflective thinking as well as the problem-solving techniques that aid them both within and outside of the classroom.

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Knowledge of Islamic Ethical Values

A good teacher is aware of the Islamic code of behaviour, which includes equality, justice, brotherhood, balance, tolerance, and peace, as well as the beliefs, prayers, and ethics based on the teachings of the Quran and Sunnah. A non-Muslim should be aware of Islamic ethical principles because Pakistan is an Islamic state, but this does not imply that he cannot become a qualified teacher. The values that are being pushed and accepted across the world should be understood by educators. They should comprehend the current necessity for both national and international peace, as well as the elements that contribute to peace and the erosion of morals and ethics.

Proficiency in Educational Planning and Techniques

Competent teachers are aware of the purpose, goals, and objectives of education. They also know the curriculum for a particular topic and how important it is for lesson planning. They are fully aware of the fundamentals of learning to read, write, and do maths at various developmental levels. They are aware that there are suitable tools and resources available for lesson design, including instructional technology that may be used to encourage students’ focus and critical thinking.

They build their lesson plans on the needs, growth, and past knowledge of their pupils. They possess the in-depth knowledge to employ a variety of strategies for creating educational methods, resources, and environments that support learning for all students. They are aware of the range of teaching strategies and technological tools that are used to encourage logical reasoning and critical thinking. A broad variety of activities that involve students in accomplishing tasks and reflecting on their actions are included in active learning instructional methodologies. It is possible to develop and use active learning teaching practices that encourage students to think critically or creatively, speak with confidence, write down their thoughts, and reflect on their learning experiences.

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Assessment Knowledge

The formal learning process includes ongoing assessment to evaluate students’ learning objectives and proficiency. The assessment process’s goal is to evaluate the capacity of individuals to carry out certain tasks successfully and economically. This approach is predicated on the learning objectives of the educational process, which are the expectations of curriculum and policymakers. These are given to the teachers in written form. To assess how students learn, what they know and can do, and what kinds of experiences will support their continued growth and development, teachers should be familiar with a variety of assessment methods, including criterion-referenced and norm-referenced instruments, traditional standardised and performance-based tests, observation systems, and assessments of student work.

Familiarity with the Learning Environment

Teachers are aware of the value of a supportive learning environment and effective classroom management. They have a thorough understanding of learning theories, including the tenets and tactics of efficient classroom management that foster constructive interactions, teamwork, and meaningful learning activities. Every student’s learning process is influenced by the classroom environment. Teachers are crucial in establishing a welcoming and comfortable learning atmosphere. They ought to be familiar with the strategies for encouraging students to become more involved and dedicated to active, lifelong learning. A more thorough and broken-down understanding of the resources available and how best to use them to support particular teaching and learning objectives can be beneficial to aspiring educators.

A successful teaching and learning process must be planned before it can be carried out. For instructors, lesson preparation in advance encourages them to examine the ordinary learning environment more closely. It pushes them to consider how to help pupils with their particular peculiarities in the classroom. Peer connections are crucial in fostering an ethical learning environment, and teachers should be aware of how students may support one another’s learning. They know how to apply democratic ideals in the classroom.

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Proficiency in Information and Communication Technology Use

Technology-related experiences can open up previously unheard-of educational possibilities. Nevertheless, technology cannot fully enhance children’s learning and growth without an educational component. The education component of early childhood programs frequently include adults being close by, engaging with kids, and offering chances for peer-to-peer learning in order to help kids develop the skills they need to thrive in school. Teachers that are competent should know how to use and incorporate technology into lab and classroom activities. Operating systems and software for word processing, filing, research, data storage, and information display should be familiar to them. How to use the many technological resources that are accessible in their classrooms, such as computers, phones, cameras, artwork, and movies.

Understanding the Value of Teamwork

Teachers nowadays should establish the fundamental ideas of teamwork in the classroom. Students cannot be separated from their families, and teaching cannot take place in a vacuum. Because education is a social process, social pressures cannot be completely removed from the teaching and learning process; however, they may be reduced by incorporating all parties involved in the educational process. Teachers ought to be aware of the value of teamwork, the school’s place in the community, and how to use partnerships to support the growth and learning of their students.

Perception of the Professional Code of Conduct

Teachers are aware of the requirements of a professional code of conduct and how educational research and other inquiry techniques can be utilised to support ongoing learning, self-evaluation, and professional growth. In order to be creative and unique in their teaching practices, they need possess extensive information. Through efficient communication, teachers may share their expert knowledge with their colleagues, suggest innovative teaching methods, and enhance their professional talents. They could experiment with new teaching tools and methods to help their pupils learn throughout their lives. Due to the digital era, the curriculum and learning requirements for pupils are evolving daily along with the global landscape. Teachers ought to be aware of the code of conduct and ongoing professional development.

Awareness of Intellectual Status of English

Teachers are aware of the English language’s academic standing in Pakistan. Since English is an international language, it must be promoted in order to evaluate the knowledge assets that are frequently conveyed in it. They are aware of the primary goals and objectives of English language education in Pakistan as well as the goals of teaching English as a topic at the national level.

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There are several approaches, such as phone calls, to improve communication between the parent and the instructor about academic performance. Teachers should call the parents of their students to update them on their curriculum, academic progress, and any noteworthy accomplishments, share personal stories, and extend invitations to open houses, conferences, and school events.

CGPA Calculation and Letter Grade Assignment

Cumulative Grade Point Average is referred to as CGPA. It presents a composite picture of a student’s achievement based on the grade point average across all disciplines and courses. To compute the CGPA, the following data must be available.

• Grades for each course and subject
• The average grade for each course or subject
• Total credit hours (added from the credit hours of all courses/subjects)

The cumulative grade point average (CGPA) is easily calculated by dividing it by the entire number of credit hours. For instance, an MA Education student may have completed 12 courses for three credits apiece. There will be 36 credit hours in all. 36/12 = 3.0 will be the CGPA.

Assigning letter grades

Pakistan is not exempt from the global popularity of the letter grade system for academic performance. Most educators run across issues while grading students. In this sense, there are four main concerns or problems:

1) what goes into a letter grade?

2) how do accomplishment data get integrated to assign letter grades?

3) what kind of framework should be utilized for grading? and

4) how do you decide how to distribute letter grades?

1. Choosing what information to put in a grade

The most significant and practical application of letter grades is probably when they are used to indicate achievement alone. They will be completely perplexed if they are interpreted in conjunction with other elements or characteristics like the amount of work done, one’s behavior, etc. For instance, a letter grade of C might indicate mediocre performance combined with exceptional effort and good manners, or vice versa. For letter grades to serve as reliable markers of performance, they must be derived from legitimate accomplishment metrics. To quantify the desired learning outcomes, objectives must be defined. To do this, tests and assessments that can measure these outcomes must be created or chosen.

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2. Combining information to determine grades

Determining the specific features of a student to be evaluated or the approximate weight assigned to each learning outcome is a crucial consideration when awarding marks for academic performance. We must combine all of the components by giving the proper weights to each component, and then use these composite scores as the basis for grading. For instance, if we decide that the midterm assessment should be given 35 percent of the weight, the final term test or assessment should be given 40 percent, and assignments, presentations, classroom participation, and conduct and behavior should be given 25%.

3. Choosing an appropriate framework for grading

One of the following frameworks of reference is usually used to award letter grades.
a) Results in comparison to other group members (relative grading)
b) Achievement following predetermined criteria (absolute rating)
c) The degree of change in performance compared to learning ability
A student’s performance is compared to that of a reference group, often their classmates, to provide grades on a relative basis. The relative position or ranking of the student within the entire group determines the grade in this system. Despite having a moving frame of reference (i.e., grading based on group ability), relative grading is nevertheless often utilized in schools since our testing system is typically “norm-referenced.”

Comparing a student’s performance to predetermined standards established by the teacher is the process of assigning grades on an absolute basis. This type of examination is known as “criterion-referenced.” All pupils will earn low grades if their mastery of the material is not up to the set performance criteria. A standard-based method of assessing and reporting student achievement is at odds with the way students perform concerning their capacity to learn. It is challenging to progress in such a short amount of time. Grades with poor dependability will thus be the consequence of unreliability in determining the degree of progress and the relationship between achievement and ability. These ratings are therefore applied in addition to existing grading schemes.

4. Calculating the grade distribution

To award relative grades, students are ranked according to their overall accomplishment, and letter grades are assigned based on each student’s position within the group. This rating may be based on the distribution of several classroom groups taking the same course together, or it may be restricted to a single classroom group. Establishing basic criteria for introductory and advanced courses by the school staff is the most practical way to determine the distribution of letter grades in a school if grading on the curve is used for academic performance. The criteria used to give grades must be understood by all staff members and made apparent to those who will be using the grades.

If the objectives of a course are clearly mentioned and the standards for mastery appropriately set, the letter grades in an absolute system may be defined as the degree to which the objectives have been attained, as follows.
A = Outstanding (90 to 100%)
B = Very Good (80-89%)
C = Satisfactory (70-79%)
D = Very Weak (60-69%)
F = Unsatisfactory (Less than 60%)

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Test Reporting and Marking

In schools, there are often two types of assessments used for presenting the results of students: norm-referenced and criterion-referenced. Tests that are criterion-referenced are meant to gauge how well students have understood the curriculum or the learning objectives, not to rank or compare the performance of individual students. Frequently, they serve as reference points to pinpoint the strong and poor points of a certain curriculum. Norm-referenced exams emphasize relative performance over absolute performance by comparing a person’s results to those of his or her peers. The pupils’ standing about that group is shown by their scores on norm-referenced examinations. In norm-referenced examinations, common results are raw scores, grade norms, percentiles, stanines, and standard scores.

Raw scores

The number of points obtained on an exam after the instructions have been assessed is known as the raw score. On an objective test, for instance, if a student answers 65 items correctly (one point is awarded for each right response), their raw score will be 65.

A raw score is a numerical summary of a student’s exam performance, but it is not particularly useful without more context. What does a raw score of 35 indicate, for instance, in the case above? What was the number of test items? What categories of queries were posed? In what way were the goods challenging?

Grade norms

Grade norms are frequently used to standardize achievement exams, particularly in the primary grades. The grade level at which the average student receives a certain raw score is shown by the grade equivalent that corresponds to that specific raw score. The performance of pupils in the norm group in each of two or more grades is used to determine grade equivalents.

Percentile ranking

In a hypothetical group of 100 students, a percentile score shows where the score stands about others of the same age or grade. Put differently, a percentile rank, also known as a percentile score, represents a student’s proportion of pupils in the group and their relative place within it.

The percentile rank denotes the proportion of persons with scores that are either equal to or lower than a specified score. A percentile of 25 means that, on the same metric, the student’s performance on the exam is equal to or better than that of 25 out of 100 students.

Standard scores

A standard score is calculated from the raw results by using the typical data collected throughout the test’s development. Rather than displaying a student’s position about other students, standard scores show how much a particular score deviates from the average (Mean) using a shared scale, say one with an average of 100. In essence, test performance is expressed in terms of standard deviation (SD) from the mean in standard scores.

Standard scores are useful for comparing people from different age groups or grades since they are all translated to the same numerical scale. Standard scores can take many different forms, including T-scores, z-scores, and stains.

Read: Norm-referenced test: advantages and disadvantages of norm-reference testing

The Z-score is a straightforward way to communicate test results. It shows how many standard deviations a raw score deviates from or exceeds the mean. When the raw score is less than the mean, the z-score is always negative. The formula for symbolic representation is z-score = X-M/SD.

Any group of standard cores that are normally distributed and have an SD of 10 and a mean of 50 is referred to as a T-score.

The most basic kind of normalized standard scores that show how normalization works are called stains. Single-digit grades for stains range from 1 to 9. These are percentile rank groupings where the total score group is split into nine portions, with the majority of people falling in the center spots and the least amount of pupils at the extremities.

Norm reference test and traditional letter-grade system

This is the most widely used and simplest grading and reporting system. Generally speaking, the old system uses grades A through F. Grade A Excellent, B (Very Good), C (Good), D (Satisfactory/Average), E (Unsatisfactory/Below Average), and F (Fail) are the typical ratings for this category.

This technique accurately evaluates a student’s development across several subject areas. The first drawback of this technique is that it is hard to understand the outcomes. Secondly, a student’s performance is associated with success, effort, work habits, and good behavior; all of these aspects of a student’s character cannot be evaluated by a standard letter grade system. Third, teachers often allocate a different percentage of children to each letter grade. Fourthly, it doesn’t show trends in the pupils’ areas of strength and weakness. Despite these drawbacks, this approach is well-liked at colleges, institutions, and schools.

Criterion reference test and the system of pass-fail

In particular, it is a widely used method for reporting elementary school kids’ progress. Parents in Pakistan are concerned about their children’s academic achievement since the vast majority of them are illiterate or barely literate. For courses taught using a pure mastery learning method, this system is primarily utilized.
Numerous flaws exist in this method as well. First of all, a lot of students do not put in enough effort since they are told that they are either successful or failed and are therefore left with inadequate or subpar learning outcomes. Second, in comparison to the conventional letter grade system (A, B, C, and D), this two-category approach gives the instructor, student, and parents less information. Thirdly, the learning level is not indicated.

Checklist of Objectives

Some schools have substituted or added a list of objectives to be verified or graded in place of the standard grading system to produce more relevant progress reports. Elementary schools are the target audience for this system. This system’s main benefit is that it offers a thorough examination of each student’s strengths and shortcomings. The following objectives, for instance, might be included in the reading comprehension assessment goals.

• Reads fluently to others;
• Defines meaning and application of new terms;
• Reads on their own for enjoyment

Rating scales

Many schools use a rating system, often ranging from 1 to 10, to assess students’ progress rather than assigning letter grades. A score of 1 denotes the lowest performance, while a score of 10 denotes an exceptional or exceptional performance. However, in actuality, every rating level relates to a certain degree of learning success. The assessment of applicants for admission to various university courses also makes use of these grading scales. There are a few other ranking systems in use across the globe.

Typically, while using rating scales, we evaluate pupils’ skills about “how much,” “how often,” “how good,” etc. The continuum might be qualitative, like “how well a student behaves,” or quantitative, like “how many test points a student received.” Nowadays, creating rating scales is standard practice, but many teachers cannot still create a rating scale that is appropriate for the context of their unique learning environments.

Read: Evaluation standards for sixth-grade essay-style test items

Letters to parents/guardians

Some schools use letters to update parents on their children’s development. Since writing letters to parents takes time, instructors who are more concerned about their pupils tend to be the ones who do it. However, some excellent educators refrain from writing official letters because they believe that many points are unclear. Furthermore, a few parents are uncomfortable accepting these kinds of communications.

• Comprehensive and thoughtful written reports require an excessive amount of time and energy.
• Descriptions of students’ learning may be misinterpreted by the parents.
• Fail to provide systematic and organized information

Portfolio

Some excellent schools have professors that compile their student’s whole portfolios. A student’s portfolio is essentially a cumulative record that shows his or her skills and shortcomings over time in many courses. It reveals the methods the instructor employed to help the pupils overcome their learning challenges. Additionally, it occasionally displays pupils’ progress, highlighting any upward trends in their performance. Creating a portfolio is a challenging undertaking for teachers since it requires them to maintain all student data, including lesson plans, tests, student work samples, and assessment records for the whole academic year.

A successful portfolio is more than just a folder containing student projects. It is a carefully chosen compilation of work that frequently includes teacher and student discussion on the submissions.
Without a doubt, a student’s portfolio is an excellent assessment tool, but it has three drawbacks. It takes a lot of time, to start. Second, and most of the time a teacher has to be able to construct a portfolio. Thirdly, it works best in small classes. In Pakistan, especially in primary school, class sizes are often huge, making it impossible for teachers to keep up with a big class’s portfolio.

Report Cards

Report cards are a common practice in many reputable educational institutions around the world, including Pakistan. A lot of parents want to see the written report cards or progress reports that the schools send home. Even while a well-written report card highlights students’ progress in terms of grades, behavior, involvement in class activities, etc. Well-written remarks can provide parents and kids with recommendations on how to improve in particular behavioral or academic areas. These provide instructors the chance to consider how their pupils’ behavioral and intellectual development is going. Teachers may have a better knowledge of each student’s areas of strength and growth as a consequence of these remarks.

A. Words and phrases that promote a positive view of the student

1. Gets along well with people
2. Has a good grasp of …
3. Has improved tremendously
4. Is a real joy to have in class
5. Is well-respected by his classmates
6. Works very hard

B. Words and phrases to convey the students need help

1. Could benefit from …
2. Finds it difficult at times to …
3. Has trouble with …
4. Requires help with …
5. Needs reinforcement in …

C. Words and phrases to avoid or use with extreme caution

1. Always
2. Never
3. Can’t )or unable to)
4. Won’t

Report cards often have two drawbacks:

(1) students and parents use them normatively, regardless of how grades are issued; and

(2) many of them, along with some teachers, think that grades are far more accurate than they are. The majority of grading methods use an “F” to indicate failure or subpar work. They don’t provide parents or kids with a complete picture of what has been discovered or achieved.

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Parent-teacher conferences

The majority of elementary schools use parent-teacher conferences. Portfolios are discussed in these conferences. The parents can obtain a great deal of information from this two-way information exchange. However, one of the drawbacks is that a large number of parents choose not to attend the sessions. In addition, it takes a lot of time, and holding conferences costs money.

The literature also emphasizes “parent-student-teacher conferences” as an alternative to “parent-teacher conferences,” as students are important participants in this process because they directly benefit from it. It is now the most crucial method of telling parents about their children’s schoolwork in many industrialized nations. When parent-teacher conferences are well-organized and led by knowledgeable, dedicated teachers, they may be very beneficial. While the parent-teacher conference is a very helpful tool, it is similar to casual letters in three significant ways. It takes a significant amount of time and expertise, to start. Secondly, it fails to offer an organized log of the advancement of the students. Third, parents cannot be forced to attend conferences, and some are hesitant to do so. In several US states as well as in certain other developed nations, parent-student-teacher conferences are regularly held. This has emerged as a notable characteristic of charter schools in the US. To communicate the depth of how pupils are doing or doing, some schools depend more on parent conferences than written reports. To supplement the parent conferences in such situations, schools will occasionally give a narrative overview of the student’s achievements and position.

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Norm-referenced Test

The development of students is compared to that of their peers using the results of norm-referenced assessments. In addition to children from all across the country in the same grade, this group may include students from special education programs, students with disabilities, English language learners, brilliant students, and more. Typically, national peer groups are used in norm-referenced assessments.

These assessments’ main objective is to compare a student’s performance to that of other students in a predefined peer group. Students do an evaluation. Teachers can then examine the results to gain more insight into the performance of the pupils. Teachers can utilize criterion-referenced examinations and norm-referenced tests to get additional insights into their pupils’ progress.

The position of each student concerning other students who are similar to them may be determined by examining norm-referenced test results. When a third-grade student achieves a score in the 90th percentile, for instance, they are outperforming the majority of their peers. Knowing how a student performs in comparison to classmates can be helpful, even when it has no direct bearing on education.

The significance of norm-referenced tests

In certain cases, it matters more about student’s appearance in the crowd than it does what they know. Assume you are the instructor of the third grade in the previous scenario. To learn more, you employ a nationally normed evaluation. Although the performance of your class meets the requirements of your state, these norms will show you how third graders nationwide are doing overall. You may assess your pupils’ performance at the national level by using normed data. This may also provide you with insightful information about the performance of your peers.

Advantages of norm reference testing

Standardized processes, good and dependable test quality, and useful information on average performance are some benefits of norm-referenced testing. Norm-referenced testing also makes it easier to identify students who are in danger of failing, establish criteria for student development, and make judgments about their educational requirements.

When comparing student performance and development, the norm-referenced test is the most convenient to employ. These assessments are inexpensive, simple to give, and offer a brief overview of the material that students should know.

Read: Scales of measurement in education assessment and evaluation

Human characteristics are thought to be distributed along a normal probability or normal curve according to norm-referenced testing. The population’s average, high, and low test scores are shown by this curve. Exam results across kids of the same age are compared on a norm-referenced exam.

The benefits of norm-referenced testing are somewhat offset by the drawbacks. The scope of subjects and human capacities that these tests can evaluate is limited. Critical thinking and reasoning are largely absent from these assessments, which place an excessive amount of emphasis on memorization and ordinary routines. Due to their multiple-choice and short response format, norm-referenced examinations are not suitable for assessing a student’s writing skills, comprehension of the relationship between science and current events, or debating abilities. For pupils who do poorly on these exams, there may be a reduction in academic expectations.

Disadvantages of norm reference testing

There are possible biases in norm-referenced tests, some of which are obvious and others of which are less obvious. The idea that English exams are inappropriate for pupils with low English competence is one of the most obvious prejudices.

Moreover, the dialect spoken by the speaker may introduce bias into norm-referenced assessments. Inflectional morphology (walk/ing, talk/s) is examined in a large number of norm-referenced examinations. African American English follows a systematic norm that zero marks the third person singular and present progressive, hence using speakers of dialects other than General American English on these exams that evaluate these linguistic components would skew the results. For norm-referenced tests, more subdued biases like format biases also occur. Test formats are founded on conventional Western ideals (i.e., the idea that performance can be objectified, individual success, competitiveness, the value of speed, following schedules, and logical reasoning). Students who hold different beliefs will find it difficult to adapt to the test structure. Say for instance:

● A student from a non-dominant culture can be less adept at finishing the tasks on a particular test. Lower performance and fictitiously low scores are the results of less experience.
● Most assessments presume that kids have similar values and views. Tests will be biassed and assignments unfamiliar if students do not share the same opinions or values.
● It is assumed in norm-referenced assessments that students can bear a certain amount of irritation before reaching a roof. This expectation is well-known and experienced by the majority of students from the dominant culture. If a pupil is unfamiliar with this, there may be issues with this assumption.

In assessment procedures, norm-referenced tests play a significant role. Because of the biases present in these exams, assessors have to take a moment to reflect on alternative approaches of evaluation that are more culturally sensitive and gauge a student’s ability to utilize language effectively in a variety of contexts and activities. When used as one of several data sources for specific students, norm-referenced tests have a position in the comprehensive assessment model framework.

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Measurement scales are methods of collecting and assessing data. Different measuring scales are used to define and categorize variables, or numbers. Different uses of statistical analysis are dictated by the distinctive qualities of each level of the measurement scale. The choice of the right scale relies on the objective of the research and the kind of data (qualitative or quantitative).

The systematic application of numbers to things or occurrences is called measurement. Because they are related to the kinds of statistics you may use to analyze your data, measurement scales are important. Using the wrong scale/statistic combination or applying a low-powered statistic to a high-powered set of data are two simple ways for a manuscript to be rejected. The four generally used levels of measurement scales are as follows: a number can be used simply to identify or categorize a response; otherwise, the appropriate analysis can be performed on the data.

Nominal Scale

The lowest measuring scales are called nominal scales. As the name suggests, a nominal scale is only a way to group data into categories without any kind of hierarchy or order. Only counting the occurrences of each value or determining whether a nominal scale datum equals a certain value is permitted. For instance, classifying classmates’ blood types into A, B, AB, O, etc. Counting is the only mathematical action that can be done with nominal data. Categorical variables are those that are evaluated using a nominal scale. Categorical data are measured using nominal scales that just provide labels to identify different categories. One nominal scale variable is gender, for instance. Classifying people according to gender is a common application of a nominal scale.

Nominal Data

• classification or categorization of data, e.g. male or female
• no ordering, e.g. it makes no sense to state that male is greater than female (M > F), etc.
• arbitrary labels, e.g., pass=1 and fail=2, etc.

Read: Evaluation standards for sixth-grade essay-style test items

Ordinal Scale

The measurement of something on an “ordinal” scale is inherently evaluative. It is also permissible to determine if a datum on an ordinal scale is more or less than another value. For instance, if you were to rate your level of job satisfaction on a scale of 1 to 10, 10 would indicate total contentment. We simply know that 2 is superior to 1 or that 10 is superior to 9 when using ordinal scales; we are unsure of the exact difference. It might change. As a result, ordinal data can be “ranked,” but differences between two ordinal values cannot be “quantified.” The ordinal scale includes aspects of the nominal scale.

Ordinal Data

•ordered but differences between values are not important. Differences between values may or may not same or equal.
e.g., political parties on left to right spectrum given labels 0, 1, 2
e.g., Likert scales, rank on a scale of 1..5 your degree of satisfaction
e.g., restaurant ratings

Interval Scale

An interval scale is created when there is a measurable difference between values on an ordinal scale. There is no natural zero, but you may measure the difference between two interval scale values. Similar to ordinal scales, an interval variable has an equal distance between each value and provides information about more or better. The separation between 1 and 2 is the same as that between 9 and 10. Students’ achievement scores are measured on an interval scale.

Interval Data

• Constant scale, organized, but without a natural zero
• While ratios make sense (e.g., 30°-20°=20°-10°, but 20°/10° e.g., temperature (C, F), dates), differences make sense.

Ratio Scale

The only difference between an interval and a ratio scale measurement is the presence of an absolute zero point in the ratio scale measurement. Kelvin temperature measurement is one example. Absolute zero is 0 degrees Kelvin, and no value can be lower. Typically, ratio variables are physical dimensions such as length, weight, and height. Another example is weight; zero pounds is a meaningfully zero amount of weight. Whichever scale the object is being measured in (e.g., yards or meters), this ratio will always stay true. The existence of a natural zero explains this.

Ratio Data

•ordered, constant scale, natural zero. e.g., height, weight, age, length.

Nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio can all be thought of as being ranked concerning one another. There are three levels of sophistication: interval is simpler than ratio, ordinal is simpler than interval, and nominal is simpler than ordinal.

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Grading Test Items of the Essay

The primary flaw in the essay test items, according to N.E. Gronlund (1990), is the grading system’s complexity. A few guidelines provided by test specialists may help to increase the essay questions’ impartiality when they are scored.

a. Prioritise creating a score key. The main ideas of the acceptable response, the aspect of the answer that has to be assessed, and the weights allocated to each should all be included in the scoring key. As an example, let’s say the query is, “Explain the primary components of instruction.” Assume that this question is worth 20 points as well. We may create the following scoring guide for the question.

i. A summary of the appropriate response. The establishment of instructional objectives, the identification of students’ entry behaviors, the provision of learning experiences, and the evaluation of students’ performance are the four components of teaching.

ii. Main features of the answer and the weights assigned to each.
‐Content: Allow 4 points for each element of teaching.
‐Comprehensiveness: Allow 2 points.
‐Logical organization: Allow 2 points.
‐Irrelevant material: Deduct up to a maximum of 2 points.
‐ Misspelling of technical terms: Deduct 1/2 point for each mistake up to a maximum of 2 points.
‐Major grammatical mistakes: Deduct 1 point for each mistake up to a maximum of 2 points.
‐Poo;r handwriting, misspelling of non-technical terms, and minor grammatical errors: ignore.

Preparing the scoring key in advance is useful since it provides a uniform standard for evaluation.

Read: Validity and reliability of test. Give more details on their relationship

b. Choose a suitable scoring scheme. Teachers in classrooms often employ one of two scoring strategies. both the rating and point systems. The teacher uses the point system to allocate a certain amount of points based on how closely each answer resembles the appropriate answer after comparing each response to the acceptable answer. Because restricted response questions allow for the identification and accurate assignment of point values to each answer feature, this approach works well for these kinds of questions. For instance: Let’s say the query is: “What are five theories that could explain why countries wage wars?” It is simple to give each hypothesis in the question a point value, and then to assess each response by that value.

The teacher reviews each response in the rating process before classifying it into one of several categories based on its caliber. The instructor could, for instance, create five categories:

Excellent – 10 points, good – 8 points, average – 6 points, weak – 4 points and poor – 2 points.

This approach works well for questions that need an extensive response since these questions require us to make broad assumptions about the key components of the solution. It’s best to assess each feature independently, add the point values, and then calculate the final score.

a. Go through a few of the papers to acquire a “feel” for the caliber of the responses. You’ll feel more stable in your judgment and more confident while scoring as a result.

b. After completing one question on each paper, score it before moving on to the next. Three key benefits come with this process. First, comparing the answers improves scoring fairness and accuracy; second, memorizing a single list of points reduces processing time and increases precision; and third, it prevents the “halo” effect. The propensity when rating a person to allow one of their traits to affect the evaluation of other attributes is known as the “halo effect.”

c. Establish clear guidelines for variables that might not be pertinent to the learning objectives being assessed. Several aspects affect how essay answers are graded. These elements include of neatness, handwriting, spelling, punctuation, sentence organization, style, and padding of extraneous content. The instructor should indicate which factors would be considered and excluded, as well as the points that would be added to or subtracted from each element.

d. Acknowledge the papers in secret. Instead of writing his name at the top of each page, have the pupil write it on the back of the end of the document. Another option is to assign a code number to each student, having them write it on their paper in place of their name.

Grading Criteria:

To a maximum of five points, one point is awarded for each of the above factors.
To a maximum of five points, one point will be awarded for each accurate statement of the elements listed.
Grammar, punctuation, or spelling errors are not penalized. If more than five elements are listed or mentioned, no bonus points will be awarded.
We will not pay attention to unnecessary details.
More sophisticated rubrics are necessary, nevertheless, when essay questions are meant to assess higher-order thinking abilities in the cognitive domain.

Read our blog: PakSci Mission

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The reliability of tests is an important characteristic as we use the test results for future decisions about the student’s educational advances for job selection and many more. The methods to assure the reliability of the tests have been discussed. Many examples have been provided in order to in-depth understanding of the concepts. Here we shall focus upon the different factors that may affect the reliability of the test. The degree of the effect of each factor varies from situation to situation. Controlling the factor may improve the reliability and otherwise, it may lower the consistency of production of scores. Some of the factors that directly or indirectly affect the test reliability are given as under.

Test Length

As a rule, adding more homogeneous questions to a test will increase the test’s reliability. The more observations there are of a specific trait, the more accurate the measure is likely to be. Adding more questions to a psychological test is similar to adding finer distinctions on a measuring tape.

Method Used to Estimate Reliability

The reliability coefficient is an estimate that can change depending on the method used to calculate it. The method chosen to estimate the reliability should fit the way in which the test will be used.

Heterogeneity of Scores

Heterogeneity is referred to as the differences among the scores obtained from class. You may say that there are some students who got high scores and some students who got low scores or intelligent students who got high scores and other ones who got low scores or the difference could be due to any reason such as income level, intelligence of the students, parents qualification etc. Whichever is the reason for the variability of the scores the greater the variability (range) of test scores, the higher the reliability. Increasing the heterogeneity of the examined sample increases variability (individual differences) thus reliability increases.

Difficulty

A test that is too difficult or too easy reduces the reliability (e.g., fewer test-takers get the answers correctly or vice-versa). A moderate level of difficulty increases test reliability.

Errors that Can Increase or Decrease Individual Scores

There might be some errors committed by the test developers that also affect the reliability of the tests developed by teachers. These errors initially affect the students’ scores, deviate the scores from the true ability of the students, and therefore affect the reliability. A careful consideration of these factors may help to measure the true ability of the students.

Read: Types of achievement tests and their purpose

The test itself: the overall look of the test may affect the student’s score. Normally a test is written in well readable font size and style, and the language of the test should be simple and understandable.
The test administration: After the development of the test, the test developer may have to prepare the manual of the test administration, the time, environment, invigilation, and anxiety also affect students’ performance while attempting the test. Therefore the uniform administration of the test leads to increased reliability.
The test scoring: Marking of the test is another factor in the variation in the scores of the students. Normally there are many raters to rate the students’ responses/answers on the test. Objective-type test items and the marking rubric for essay-type/supply-type test items help to get consistent scores.

Read this: Top qualities and skills of a good teacher.

Ensuring the Reliability of Test

The most straightforward ways to improve a test’s reliability are

First, calculate the item-test correlations and rewrite or reject any that are too low. Any item that does not correlate with the total test at least (point-biserial) r = .25, should be reconsidered.
Second, look at the items that did correlate well and write more like them. The longer the test, the higher the reliability will be.

Read our blog: PakSci Mission

Selection Type Items (objective type)

There are four types of test items in the selection category of tests that are in common use today. They are multiple-choice, matching, true-false, and completion items.

Multiple Choice Questions

Multiple-choice test items consist of a stem or a question and three or more alternative answers (options) with the correct answer sometimes called the keyed response and the incorrect answers called distracters. This form is generally better than the incomplete stem because it is simpler and more natural.

Grounlund (1995) writes that the multiple choice question is probably the most popular as well as the most widely applicable and effective type of objective test. Student selects a single response from a list of options. It can be used effectively for any level of course outcome. It consists of two parts: the stem, which states the problem and a list of three to five alternatives, one of which is the correct (key) answer and the others are distracters (incorrect options that draw the less knowledgeable pupil away from the correct response). Multiple choice questions consist of three obligatory parts:

1. The question (“body of the question”)

2. The correct answer (“the key of the question”)

3. Several incorrect alternatives (the so called “distracters”) and optional (and especially valuable in self-assessment)

4. Feedback comment on the student’s answer.

The stem may be stated as a direct question or as an incomplete statement. For example:

• Direct question

Which is the capital city of Pakistan? ————— (Stem)

A. Paris. ————————————— (Distracter)

B. Lisbon. ————————————– (Distracter)

C. Islamabad. ———————————- (Key)

D. Rome. ————————————— (Distracter)

• Incomplete Statement

The capital city of Pakistan is

A. Paris.

B. Lisbon.

C. Islamabad.

D. Rome.

Multiple choice questions are composed of one question with multiple possible answers (options), including the correct answer and several incorrect answers (distracters).

Typically, students select the correct answer by circling the associated number or letter, or filling in the associated circle on the machine-readable response sheet. Students can generally respond to these types of questions quite quickly. As a result, they are often used to test student’s knowledge of a broad range of content. Creating these questions can be time consuming because it is often difficult to generate several plausible distracters. However, they can be marked very quickly.

Multiple Choice Questions Good for: Application, synthesis, analysis, and evaluation levels

Rules for Writing Multiple-Choice Questions

There are several rules we can follow to improve the quality of this type of written examination.

1. Examine only the Important Facts!

Make sure that every question examines only the important knowledge. Avoid detailed questions – each question has to be relevant for the previously set instructional goals of the course.

2. Use Simple Language!

Use simple language, taking care of spelling and grammar. Spelling and grammar mistakes (unless you are testing spelling or grammar) only confuse students. Remember that you are examining knowledge about your subject and not language skills.

3. Make the Questions Brief and Clear!

Clear the text of the body of the question from all superfluous words and irrelevant content. It helps students to understand exactly what is expected of them. It is desirable to formulate a question in such way that the main part of the text is in the body of the question, without being repeated in the answers.

4. Form the Questions Correctly!

Be careful that the formulation of the question does not (indirectly) hide the key to the correct answer. Student (adept at solving tests) will be able to recognize it easily and will find the right answer because of the word combination, grammar etc, and not because of their real knowledge.

5. Take into Consideration the Independence of Questions!

Be careful not to repeat content and terms related to the same theme, since the answer to one question can become the key to solve another.

6. Offer Uniform Answers!

All offered answers should be unified, clear and realistic. For example, unlikely realisation of an answer or uneven text quantity of different answers can point to the right answer. Such a question does not test real knowledge. The position of the key should be random. If the answers are numbers, they should be listed in an ascending order.

7. Avoid Asking Negative Questions!

If you use negative questions, negation must be emphasized by using CAPITAL letters, e.g. “Which of the following IS NOT correct…” or “All of the following statements are true, EXCEPT…”.

8. Avoid Distracters in the Form of “All the answers are correct” or “none of the answers is correct“!

Teachers use these statements most frequently when they run out of ideas for distractions. Students, knowing what is behind such questions, are rarely misled by it. Therefore, if you do use such statements, sometimes use them as the key answer. Furthermore, if a student recognizes that there are two correct answers (out of 5 options), they will be able to conclude that the key answer is the statement “all the answers are correct”, without knowing the accuracy of the other distracters.

9. Distracters must be significantly different from the right answer (key)!

Distracters that only slightly differ from the key answer are bad distracters. Good or strong distracters are statements that themselves seem correct but are not the correct answer to a particular question.

10. Offer an appropriate number of distractions.

The greater the number of distractions, the lesser the possibility that a student could guess the right answer (key). In higher education tests, questions with 5 answers are used most often (1 key + 4 distracters). That means that a student is 20% likely to guess the right answer.

Read: Types of achievement tests and their purpose

Advantages of MCQs

Multiple-choice test items are not a panacea. They have advantages and disadvantages, just as any other type of test item. Teachers need to be aware of these characteristics in order to use multiple-choice items effectively.

Versatility

Multiple-choice test items are appropriate for use in many different subject-matter areas and can be used to measure a great variety of educational objectives. They are adaptable to various levels of learning outcomes, from simple recall of knowledge to more complex levels, such as the student’s ability to:

• Analyze phenomena

• Apply principles to new situations

• Comprehend concepts and principles

• Discriminate between fact and opinion

• Interpret cause-and-effect relationships

• Interpret charts and graphs

• Judge the relevance of information

• Make inferences from given data

• Solve problems The difficulty of multiple-choice items can be controlled by changing the alternatives, since the more homogeneous the alternatives, the finer the distinction the students must make in order to identify the correct answer. Multiple-choice items are amenable to item analysis, which enables the teacher to improve the item by replacing distracters that are not functioning properly. In addition, the distractions chosen by the student may be used to diagnose misconceptions of the student or weaknesses in the teacher’s instruction.

Validity

In general, it takes much longer to respond to an essay test question than it does to respond to a multiple-choice test item since the composing and recording of an essay answer is such a slow process. A student is therefore able to answer many multiple-choice items in the time it would take to answer a single essay question. This feature enables the teacher to use multiple-choice items to test a broader sample of course contents in a given amount of time. Consequently, the test scores will likely be more representative of the student’s overall achievement in the course.

Reliability

Well-written multiple-choice test items compare favorably with other test item types on the issue of reliability. They are less susceptible to guessing than true-false test items and therefore capable of producing more reliable scores. Their scoring is more clear-cut than short-answer test item scoring because there are no misspelled or partial answers to deal with. Since multiple-choice items are objectively scored, they are not affected by scorer inconsistencies as are essay questions, and they are essentially immune to the influence of bluffing and writing ability factors, both of which can lower the reliability of essay test scores.

Efficiency

Multiple-choice items are amenable to rapid scoring, which is often done by scoring machines. This expedites the reporting of test results to the student so that any follow-up clarification of instruction may be done before the course has proceeded much further.

Essay questions, on the other hand, must be graded manually, one at a time. Overall, multiple-choice tests are:

•Very effective

•Versatile at all levels

•Minimum of writing for student

•Guessing reduced

•Can cover a broad range of content

Read this: Top qualities and skills of a good teacher.

Types of Achievement Tests

(a) Summative Evaluation:

Testing is done at the end of the instructional unit. The test score is seen as the summation of all knowledge learned during a particular subject unit.

(b) Formative Evaluation: Testing occurs constantly with learning so that teachers can evaluate the effectiveness of teaching methods along with the assessment of students’ abilities.

Advantages of Achievement Tests

• One of the main advantages of testing is that it is able to provide assessments that are psychometrically valid and reliable, as well as results that are generalized and replicable.

• Another advantage is aggregation. A well-designed test provides an assessment of an individual’s mastery of a domain of knowledge or skill that, at some level of aggregation, will provide useful information. That is, while individual assessments may not be accurate enough for practical purposes, the mean scores of classes, schools, branches of a company, or other groups may well provide useful information because of the reduction of  error accomplished by increasing the sample size.

Read: The role of classroom assessment in teaching

Purpose of Achievement Tests

Achievement tests are widely used throughout education as a method of assessing and comparing student performance. Achievement tests may assess any or all of reading, math, and written language, as well as subject areas such as science and social studies.

These tests are available to assess all grade levels through adulthood. The test procedures are highly structured so that the testing process is the same for all students who take them. It is developed to measure skills and knowledge learned at a given grade level, usually through planned instruction, such as training or classroom instruction. Achievement tests are often contrasted with tests that measure aptitude, a more general and stable cognitive trait.

Read this: Top qualities and skills of a good teacher.

Achievement test scores are often used in an educational system to determine the level of instruction for which a student is prepared. High achievement scores usually indicate mastery of grade-level material and readiness for advanced instruction. Low achievement scores can indicate the need for remediation or repeating a course. Teachers evaluate students by: observing them in the classroom, evaluating their day’s class work, grading their homework assignments, and administering unit tests.

These classroom assessments show the teacher how well a student is mastering grade level learning goals and provide information that can be used to improve instruction. Overall, the testing serves the following purposes:

• Assess level of competence

• Diagnose strengths and weaknesses

• Assign Grades

• Achieve Certification or Promotion

• Advanced Placement/College Credit Exams

• Curriculum Evaluation

• Accountability;

• Informational Purposes

Classroom Assessment and its Role

Classroom Assessment is a systematic approach to formative evaluation, used by instructors to determine how much and how well students are learning. CATs and other informal assessment tools provide key information during the semester regarding teaching and learning so that changes can be made as necessary.

“Teaching and learning are reciprocal processes that depend on and affect one another. Thus, the assessment component deals with how well the students are learning and how well the teacher is teaching,” Kellough and Kellough, (1999).

Read: The concepts of measurement, assessment, and evaluation in education

Assessment does more than allocate a grade or degree classification to students – it plays an important role in focusing their attention and, as Sainsbury & Walker (2007) observe, actually drives their learning. Gibbs (2003) states that assessment has 6 main functions:

1. Capturing student time and attention

2. Generating appropriate student learning activity

3. Providing timely feedback which students pay attention to

4. Helping students internalize the discipline’s standards and notions of equality

5. Generating marks or grades that distinguish between students or enable pass/fail decisions to be made.

6. Providing evidence for others outside the course to enable them to judge the appropriateness of standards on the course.

Read this: Top qualities and skills of a good teacher.

Surgenor (2010) summarized the role of assessment in learning in the following points:

• It fulfills student expectations.

• It is used to motivate students.

• It provides opportunities to remedy mistakes.

• It indicates readiness for progression.

• Assessment serves as a diagnostic tool.

• Assessment enables grading and degree classification.

• Assessment works as a performance indicator for students.

• It is used as a performance indicator for teachers.

• Assessment is also a performance indicator for institutions.

• Assessment facilitates learning in one way or the other.