Reliability of test:

The degree of consistency and stability a test exhibits in measuring its intended construct is known as the test reliability of test. In its most basic form, a test is dependable if it is constant both internally and throughout time. Imagine a bathroom scale that provided you with radically different readings each time you stepped on it, regardless of whether you had gained or lost weight. This is how test reliability works in general. Should such a scale be in existence, it would be deemed untrustworthy.

Validity of test:

The extent to which a test truly assesses the things it purports to measure is referred to as test validity. The degree to which judgments, inferences, and conclusions drawn from test results are reasonable and significant is another measure of test validity. The research conducted in 2000 and 2008 provides proof that the accountability tests that Ohio has imposed are invalid and that judgments and inferences based on OPT performance are not grounded on the test’s purported measurement objectives.

Read this article: Steps needed to set up efficient audiovisual aids and the issues with projector use in classrooms.

The association between reliability and validity

Test usefulness is determined by two distinct standards: validity and reliability. Despite their differences, they cooperate. Creating a reliable test that didn’t measure what it was supposed to measure would not be advantageous. It is impossible to do the opposite, which is to properly measure what we want to evaluate using a test that has so many flaws that the results cannot be repeated. Validity must be accompanied by reliability. This implies that having validity requires having high dependability. Validity is constrained by reliability; a test cannot be valid if it lacks reliability. Validity establishment only begins with a strong dependability foundation. It is necessary to prove validity independently. Being able to measure something consistently is all that excellent reliability indicates; it does not imply good validity. It is now necessary for us to determine what it is that we are regularly measuring. It is important to remember that validity requires dependability not only reliability. To put it succinctly, dependability is the capacity to identify when validity is an issue.

Test reliability cannot occur without test validity. Reliability is meaningless if a test is not legitimate. Put differently, test validity is a prerequisite for any meaningful consideration of reliability, therefore it makes little sense to discuss reliability if a test lacks validity. Similarly, a test is invalid if it is not dependable. As such, dependability is not examined in the two Hoover Studies.

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Descriptive Research

In descriptive research, the investigator does not manipulate the variables or arrange events to happen. Descriptive research involves events that have already taken place or would have taken place even though there had been no observation or description. Thus descriptive research may be undertaken to study the administrative machinery for educational planning in different provinces or causes of low female participation rate, which may be Investigated by studying community attitudes towards female education. In these studies, the planning machinery is already in existence and the process of planning is going on; the researcher cannot cause any, change and study its impact. He can only describe and analyze the existing phenomena and may, at times, try to relate it with some factor e.g. community attitude in case of low female participation rate.

According to Best, descriptive research describes and interprets “what is? It is concerned with conditions or relationships that exist, practices that prevail; beliefs, points of views or attitudes that are held; processes that are going on, effects that are being felt, or trends that are developing.” Descriptive research sometimes also investigates how an existing phenomenon is related to some preceding event or what was the effect of that preceding event on the present conditions. Its process involves gathering and tabulating facts, an element of analysis and interpretation, comparison or contrast of variables as well as their measurement and classification. An investigator, studying the causes of the low female participation rate, may try to assess the role played by parental attitudes, poverty of parents, non-availability of female teachers, distance of school from home,’ non-functional curricula, etc., through obtaining the views of parents, teachers, community leaders and out-of-school girls through a questionnaire. He may then compare the views of fathers, mothers, and daughters with one another and with those of the views of community leaders and teachers. Based on the analysis of data, he may also interpret the results.

Major forms of Descriptive Research

Different writers have classified descriptive research in different ways. Van. Dalen has placed descriptive research in three forms:

1. Survey studies
2. Inter-relationship studies
3. Developmental studies

Some studies fall exclusively within one of the three areas but others have characteristics of more than one of these categories. A detailed description of these categories of research is given in the following sections.

Interrelationship Studies

Educationists collect facts to obtain an accurate description of existing status as they make an effort to trace interrelationships between facts that will provide a deeper insight into the phenomena. According to Van Dalen, three types of studies are included in this type of descriptive research. These are:

i)Case studies

ii)Casual Comparative studies

iii) Correlation Studies.

Below is a detailed discussion of each of the three types of studies.

Case Study

When the focus of attention is directed toward a single case or a limited number of cases, the process is personalized, and such research is included in the Case Study method of descriptive research. This study is extended to include any relatively detailed description and analysis of a single person, event, institution, or community. This type of study is said to be ‘idiographic’, that is, it attempts to understand the behavior or attitudes of the individuals without attempting to generalize these findings to other persons or groups. Here the emphasis is not upon the individual representing a type but upon the Jndivj4ual as a unique personality with his problems and needs.

The case studies in research can be undertaken for the following purposes:

i. Unto provide the investigator with hypotheses that might be difficult to study in other contexts.

ii. a case study may provide the investigator unique situation that can be used to test hypotheses:

iii. the case study may provide new insights, help modify pie existing beliefs, and point out gaps in knowledge;

iv. the case study may be useful in demonstrating how a theoretical model can be exhibited in a concrete model.

Case study data may come from various sources. The researcher may ask the subjects to recall experiences or to express present situations in interviews and questionnaires.

Personal documents such as diaries, letters, and various physical, psychological, or sociological measurements may yield valuable information.

A case study is similar to a survey but instead of gathering data concerning a few factors from a large number of social units, an intensive study of a limited number of representative cases is made. It is narrower in scope but more exhaustive than a survey.

Read: The threats to internal and external validity during experimental research and how to minimize these threats

Let us discuss an example to clarify the concept of a case study

Suppose an EPM student was to determine if the programs offered by the EPM Department of the Allama Iqbal Open University are meeting the objectives of providing training to the educational planners and managers in the country and will carry out a case study of the EPM Department. For this case study he gives a detailed background and history of the Department, its aims, and the details of the academic programs offered. He also discusses the admission procedures and the methods of student evaluation. Discussion is also made about the feeding areas of the Department and the areas where EPM graduates can go to serve. The future programs are also critically analyzed and recommendations made by the researcher about the overall functioning, of the department keeping in view the existing situation of the Department.

This case study may provide new insights and would help modify the existing programs in the Department. It may point out the weaknesses or drawbacks in the functioning of the Department. Thus it can help in diagnosing the weaknesses or strengths of the Department so that it is better able to fulfill the aim of giving training to educational planners and managers in the country: Though a case study does not aim at generalization, it may provide insight into a phenomenon and help in the formulation of some hypothesis. The existence lip of a particular condition in a unique case may suggest a factor to look for in other cases. An in–depth case study of the Mohammad brothers (Hanif, Mushtaq, etc.) and the Khan family of squash (Roshan, Jahahgir, etc.,) may indicate the presence of some conditions in the family environment that helps to raise sportsmen. Similarly, there are families in Pakistan which have produced many outstanding civil servants, army officers, businessmen, and professionals. Case studies of these individuals/families could also be fruitful.

Causal Comparative Studies

Some researchers, while carrying out descriptive research not only try to discover what a phenomenon is, but also how and why it occurs. They try to determine what factors, or circumstances, certain events or practices accompany the occurrence of the phenomenon.

In social sciences, where it is difficult to control various variables, the causal-comparative method is employed instead of experimental research. It is not always possible for an educational planner to select, control, and manipulate the factors necessary to study cause-and-effect relationships. So this method enables a researcher to analyze what happens in a natural rather than laboratory situation. In an experiment, the researcher may hypothesize; ‘If observed’. He then manipulates the independent variable and exposes an experimental group to experience A, while withholding the experience from a control group and observing the result In a causal’ comparative study, the researcher observes phenomena B and searches back through a multiplicity of possible causes for the factors-independent variables-that are related to or contributed to the occurrence of the phenomena B.

For example, a researcher wants to determine the causes of riots in an educational institution. He cannot set up a control group to test whether certain factors will cause a riot. He will compare the institutions where riots occurred with other institutions which had no riots. He will study the likeness and difference between the two situations and will determine the factors that appear to account for the riots in one instance and its lack in the other. This type of research has some limitations. Lack of control is the greatest weakness of this method. Suppose a researcher observes phenomenon B and hypothesizes that A caused B. The data may show that A is related to B but without controlling A, he cannot be certain that some other factor a C, D, or did not cause the occurrence of B. So we can that causal comparative studies do not produce the precise reliable knowledge that an experimental study can do. However, they provide a way to probe problems that cannot be probed in a laboratory situation.

Correlation Studies

Descriptions of phenomena are sometimes made by employing the correlation technique, which helps in ascertaining the extent to which two variables are related or the extent to which variations in one factor correspond with variations in another factor. The investigator in these types of studies does not manipulate the independent variable but he merely makes observations of both the ‘independent’ as well as the ‘dependent’ variable as these occur in a natural setting.

For example, a researcher studying the relationship between I.Q. and achievement randomly selects some groups and measures both the I.Q. and the achievement through some tests. The two variables in this type of research may be closely related, moderately related, or completely unrelated. Generally, the magnitude of the correlation depends upon the extent to which an increase or decrease in one variable is accompanied by an increase or decrease in the other variable whether in the same direction or opposite direction. For example, a high positive correlation exists if a high rank in one set is accompanied by a high rank in the other (high I.Q. High achievement test score) and a low rank in one set is accompanied by a low rank in the other. A high negative correlation exists in general a high rank in one set of scores corresponds with a low rank in the other (high I.Q, low achievement test score). No or little correlation exists If a high score in one set is just as likely to correspond with a low as with a high score in the other set Correlations, therefore, range over a scale that extends from a perfect negative correlation to no correlation and to perfect positive correlation.*

The correlation technique is a valuable research tool but a coefficient of correlation merely quantifies the extent to which two variables are related and it does not imply that a cause-effect relationship necessarily exists. The meaning of the relationship is interpreted by logical analysis rather than statistical computations. This Interpretation has all the limitations to which causal-comparative studies are subjected. With some ingenuity, the correlational method can also be used in studying problems in the field of planning and management. For example, the relationship between teacher commitment and drop-out rate, distance of school from home female participation rate, etc. can be studied with the help of this method.

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The following points will justify the need and importance of research in education.

Rapid Expansion and Democratization of Education

The need for research in education to improve educational policies and practices is being realized increasingly. Research in education has assumed greater urgency because of the rapid expansion and democratization of education throughout the world during the last decade.

Technological Changes

The rapid technological changes have brought an increase in educational problems and both laymen and educators have felt that they can no longer depend upon trial and error. No amount of experience gathered and no amount of wisdom collected in the form of casual observations, traditions, or recommendations of groups or individuals can ever promise rapid progress and improvement as is needed all over the world. Therefore, educationists are constantly searching for effective methods of instruction, more satisfactory techniques of evaluation, richer learning materials, more efficient systems of administration, and better human relations. Just as the sociologists, the anthropologists, and economists are carrying on research, so is the case with the educationists.

Read: The concept of educational research and its significance

New Demands on Education

With educational research, it may not be possible to develop new curricula, new teaching methods, and new teaching materials to meet the new demands placed on the educational systems of the world. Robert M.W. Travers in ‘An Introduction to Educational Research’ has. stated that educational research forms an indispensable basis for any “national organization of education, especially as regards curricula, syllabuses, and methods as well as for financing education, for its planning, and for the building of schools.”

Interdisciplinary Approach to Education

Education is a growing science and its foundations are to be explored for a study of the subject as an interdisciplinary approach. It is, therefore, almost imperative to study education from its proper perspective. Philosophy is the cornerstone of the foundation of education and psychology provides the bricks and mortar for laying the foundation of education on a scientific basis. Educational research is thus an indispensable development for its growth. Thus we can hardly afford to think of education in isolation today.

Knowledge Explosion and the Need for Educational Research

The world has witnessed an unprecedented explosion of knowledge. Since education depends on a corpus of knowledge, the need for research arises to study the changes in various disciplines and to make necessary adjustments in educational philosophy, programs, and policies. The means, methods, and machinery of education need to change in the light of a progressive social milieu, and changing economic, political, and social set-up.

Education and Productivity

Education and productivity are positively correlated and education needs planning according to manpower needs which in turn is based on research.

Scarce Resources and Optimum Development

It is through research only that we come to know how best to utilize the available resources for achieving the best results.

Spirit of Research is Needed Everywhere

A spirit of inquiry adds to the competence and scholarship of the researcher.

Research is Needed to Keep out of Fixed track

Research enables an individual to change his conservative outlook. It keeps us out of fixed track by making us mentally alive.

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Educational research is a type of systematic investigation that applies empirical methods to solving challenges in education. According to J.W. Best (1992), research is an “intellectual activity which brings to light new knowledge or corrects previous error and misconceptions and adds in an orderly way to the existing corpus of knowledge.”

The terms ‘research and scientific method’ are often used synonymously and ‘research is considered to be more formal’ systematic intensive process of carrying on the scientific method of analysis. There are seven elements of the scientific process namely:-

i. Purposeful Observation;

ii. Analysis – Synthesis;

iii. Selective Recall;

iv. Hypothesis;

v. Verification by Inference and Experimentation;

vi. Reasoning by: (a) Method of Agreement, (b) Method of Disagreement, (c) Method of Concomitant Variation, (d) Method of Residues, and (e) Joint Method of Agreement and Disagreement;

vii. Judgment.

It might be helpful to highlight some of the accepted connotations of research. These include:

1. Research is simply a systematic and refined technique of thinking, employing specialized tools, instruments, and procedures in order to obtain a more adequate solution to a problem than would be possible under ordinary means. It starts with a problem that would be possible facts, analyses these critically, and reaches decisions based on the actual evidence. It evolves original work instead of a mere exercise of personal opinion. It evolves from a genuine desire to know rather than a desire to prove something. It is quantitative, seeking to know not only ‘what’ but ‘how much’, and measurement is therefore, a central feature of it.

2. Research constitutes a method for the discovery of truth which is really a method of critical thinking. It comprises defining and redefining problems; formulating hypotheses or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing, and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last, carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.

3. The systematic and scholarly application of the scientific method, interpreted in its broader sense, to the solution of educational problems; conversely, any systematic study designed to promote the development of education as a science can be considered educational research. Best (1992) thinks, “Research is considered to be the more formal, systematic, intensive process of carrying on the scientific method of analysis. It involves a more systematic structure of investigation, usually resulting in some sort of formal record of procedures and a report of result or conclusions.”

Read: Types of research on the basis of methods used and the purpose of the research

4. Moreover, research is a point of view, an attitude of inquiry, or a frame of mind. It asks questions that have not been asked, it seeks to answer them by following a fairly definite procedure, is not a mere theorizing, rather it is an attempt to elicit facts and to face them once they have assembled.

5. Research is also called a kind of human behavior. However, one general definition of research would be that which refers to the ‘activity’ of collecting information in an orderly and systematic fashion. Research is literally speaking a kind of human behavior, and ‘activity’ in which people engage. In education, teachers, administrators, scholars, or others engage in educational research when they systematically assemble information about schools, school children, the social matrix in which a school system is determined, the characteristics of the learner, or the interaction between the school and pupils.

6. Educational research is normally considered as scientific research.

7. The Webster’s International Dictionary proposes a very inclusive definition of research as “careful inquiry or examination in seeking facts or ‘principles; diligent investigation in order to ascertain something.”

8. D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences define research as “The manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether the knowledge aids in the construction of theory or in the practice of an art.”

9. While discussing the nature and significance of educational research some scholars say, “Educational research is that activity which is directed towards the development of the science of behavior in educational situations. The ultimate aim of such a science is to provide knowledge that will permit the educator to achieve his goals by the most effective methods”. 10. Some scholars considered research as a process of developing process. According to them “Research may be defined as a method of studying problems whose solutions are to be derived partly or wholly from facts. The facts dealt with in research may be statements of opinion, historical facts, those contained in records and reports, the results of tests, answers to questions, experimental data of any sort, and so forth. The final purpose of educational research is to ascertain principles and develop procedures for use in the field of education; therefore, it should conclude by formulating principles or procedures. The mere collection and tabulation of facts is not research, though it may be preliminary to it on even a part of thereof”.

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Research is a creative and structured work undertaken to increase the goods of knowledge. It involves the methods for collection, analysis, and organization of information to increase understanding of a topic or issue. In the field, a research project may expand past work.
Research efforts are distinguished on the basis of their different purposes and approaches and that is what may scientifically be called difference in methods.

Types of Research

Types of research are classified as:
Historical research
Descriptive research
Experimental research

Historical research

The use of historical sources and techniques in educational research is a historical research method. On the basis of the experiences of the past, historical research justifies itself when used to find out the solutions to present-day problems.

Read: Various steps in the scientific method used in the research process

Qualities of historical research:

 It is based on descriptions of observations which cannot be repeated.

 It is responsible to be subjective.

 In history, the logical methods of analysis and deduction is enunciated.

Importance of historical research:

 It inspires respect for sound scholarship and admiration for great teachers.

 The history of education enables the educational worker to date craze and ruffle.

 The history of education enables the educational worker to compete with present educational problems considering their origin and growth.

Descriptive Research

This type of research is also called normative survey research. It concerns itself with the situation in terms of conditions, practices, beliefs, processes, relationships, or trends and is variously entitled as a descriptive survey – status, normative or trend study, or survey.

Qualities of descriptive research:

 It is concerned not with the characteristics, of individuals but with characteristics of the whole population or a sample.

 Data from a relatively large number of subjects is collected by this research.

 It has a very vast scope.

Importance of descriptive research:

 This type of research helps in searching existing problems, securing historical viewpoints through a series of cross-sectional pictures of similar conditions at different times, in suggesting the syllabus of future developments.

 Descriptive research methods help in developing many tools, contributing to the development of knowledge, and providing the background ideas and data from which many more studies may be managed.

Experimental Research

Experimental research is defined as the explanation and analysis of what will be or what will occur, under carefully controlled conditions. It includes a hypothesis, a variable that can be operated by the researcher, and variables that can be measured, calculated, and compared.

Qualities of experimental research:

 Independent variable manipulated by the researchers.

 Experimental research enables researchers to go beyond description, and divination and attempt to determine what caused effects.

 The nature and extent of the treatment decided by the experimental research.

Importance of experimental research:

 Capability for careful manipulation of the variables of interest.

 Data is usually free from prejudice or subjective elucidation.

 Establishment of cause and effect relations.

 Precise control of irrelevant and independent variables is allowed by the experimental research

Purpose of research

There are many purposes of research. These include the following:

1. Self-dissatisfaction: The teacher feels dissatisfied with the condition.

1. Identification of the problem: The teacher pinpoints the problem.

2. Defining the problem: After recognizing the problem, the teacher defines the problem

3. Problem analysis: The teacher then locates the causes of the weakness.

5. Action hypothesis: Here Action hypothesis is formed

6. Use of tools: The teacher decides about the research tools to be used.

7. Action program: The teacher works out the research.

8. Evaluation: The teacher finds out the difference in the result.

Advantages of Research

The Research has the following advantages.

 Evidence and Facts are stressed which keep the changed process attached more continuously to reality.

 The approach is experimental and timid rather than rigid.

 Act research emphasizes a desirable decentralization of decision-making and action

 An essential part of action research is the experiment which in point of fact is changed and evaluated.

The main functions of research in the field of distance education are:

 Action research will rapidly and powerfully develop the technique of teaching.

 Action research contributes to dignifying and stimulating the work of the teacher.

 Action research assists in developing professional experiences, and open-eyed and open-minded scientific spirit inquiry.

 Action research assists in creating new interest and new confidence in the ability of the individual teacher.

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Many researchers have described the scientific method with little difference but the main theme is a well-accepted accepted solution to the problems of science and social science.

According to Keyes the definitions of the scientific method can be found in the social and environmental sciences and, although there are variations, they all have some similarities. Students collected many scientific explanation methods from textbooks in the natural (“hard”) sciences and then were asked to compare these with those given in their social science textbook.

Some definitions list the steps or process involved while others provide a general idea of the method.

Consider the following definitions in light of different disciplines. In their geology book, Wicander & Monroe as cited in Keyes defined the scientific method as a logical, orderly approach that involves gathering data, formulating and testing hypotheses, and proposing theories. McMurry & Fay, in their chemistry book, defined it as the “Scientific method, scientific questions must be asked, and experiments must be carried out to find their answers” in the context of biology. The classic vision of the scientific method is that observations lead to hypotheses that make experimentally testable predictions.

From the psychological point of view, “The scientific method refers to a set of assumptions, attitudes, and procedures that guide researchers in creating questions to investigate, in generating evidence and drawing conclusions. Whereas in the context of sociology, the scientific method is an approach to data collection that relies on two assumptions:

Read: Various methods employed as a tool of obtaining knowledge

Knowledge about the world is acquired through observation.

The truth of the knowledge is confirmed by verification that is, by others making the same observations.

The scientific method is an empirical method of acquiring knowledge that has characterized the development of science since at least the 17th century (with notable practitioners in previous centuries). It involves careful observation, and applying rigorous skepticism about what is observed, given that cognitive assumptions can distort how one interprets the observation. It involves formulating hypotheses, via induction, based on such observations; experimental and measurement-based testing of deductions drawn from the hypotheses; and refinement (or elimination) of the hypotheses based on the experimental findings. These are principles of the scientific method, as distinguished from a definitive series of steps applicable to all scientific enterprises

The scientific method is an approach to seeking knowledge that involves forming and testing a hypothesis. The scientific method provides a logical, systematic way to answer questions and removes subjectivity by requiring each answer to be authenticated with objective evidence that can be reproduced.

Scientists have also adopted some specific procedures and thereby contributed to scientific inventions. The procedure adopted by scientists to find out the facts and scientific truths is called the ‘Scientific Method’. It is evident that if the teachers and students follow the scientific method in the classroom, the teaching-learning process will be effective. A better understanding of the scientific method is a common component for increased awareness towards knowledge acquisition. However, McPherson (2001) believes that a lack of understanding of the scientific method is more out of control than is commonly believed, at least in part because many scientists and science educators do not understand all the components of the scientific method up to the level of application. Different scientists and researchers enlist different numbers of steps involved in the process of the scientific method. The steps are explained in this unit with the purpose that students will be able to apply the method to solve science and social science problems while exercising command over the procedure.

Steps Involved in Scientific Method

From the above definitions of the scientific method, we can conclude that: The process adopted by the scientists to find out the facts and scientific truths is called the Scientific Method. The following are the compulsory steps involved in the scientific method. The elaboration of these steps is as:

1. Realizing the problem

2. Defining the problem

3. Analyzing the problem

4. Collecting data/information

5. Analyzing the information

6. Framing hypothesis

7. Verifying the hypothesis

8. Finding the solution 9. Applying the solutions in life situations.

Identify the problem

The desire to find out the truth about whatever is happening scientifically is the first step in solving the problem. Everything that happens in nature draws the attention of readers and they wonder about the underlying cause and its effects on the environment. The students are amazed. When using a scientific method the main task of the teacher is to present the concept in the form of a problem and to encourage students to find common solutions.

Explain the problem

Once the problem is clearly identified, it should be clearly defined in order for the problem to be resolved. This is the next step in the Science Path. Only after you have clearly defined the problem, is it possible to devise ways to solve the problem. Students themselves can find and write clear meanings using appropriate words with the help of the teacher. The appropriate description can be selected from them.

Problem analysis

This is the third step in the Science process that separates and organizes the problem and its components. The reader should analyze the problem in sections to get the details of each section in order to understand the actual magnitude of the problem.

Collecting data/information

Designing Techniques using available resources and problem-solving techniques and collecting data appropriately is an important step in the scientific process. Problem-related data can be collected in the following ways:

• Collection of data through observation
• Collection of data through experiments
• Collection of data by surveying literature

Analyzing the information

Analysis of the Information collected develops the scientific attitude among the learners. The collection of information can reveal the uniqueness and the diversity of the problem and its dimensions. Only on the basis of analysis of information formulating the hypothesis can be done. The irrelevant data and information can be discarded by this method. The teacher should support the learner in the analysis of information. By this skills of classification and comparison can be developed among the learners.

Framing hypothesis

The plan of speculation or conditional arrangements (Framing theory) is the significant stage in the logical strategy. Speculative arrangements are obtained by examining different information based on getting sorted out and gathering the information as indicated by their likenesses and dissimilarities. Along these lines, numerous provisional arrangements can be acquired for the given issue. They are called speculations. All theories can’t be the answers to an issue. One among them will be the reasonable answer to the issue. Understudies can be urged to figure out speculation based on gathered information by perception or by tests.

Verifying the hypothesis

Evaluation of the hypothesis or verification of the hypothesis is essential to find the appropriate one that is most likely to be correct. On the basis of hypotheses, further data collected through repeated experiments are analyzed and the most appropriate hypothesis needs to be selected. The tentative solutions may be discarded when there is a lack of validity and experimental proof.

Finding the solution

A theory should be tried in an assortment of conditions and from the aftereffects of the tests and examinations, a legitimate speculation is chosen. Chosen and affirmed speculation is tried over and over. As per its consistency, it becomes the last answer for the issue and it tends to be declared as the outcome.

Applying the solutions in life situations

The determined outcomes should be summed up. The summed-up outcome can be used at whatever point the circumstances happened the same. The student can apply something similar or comparable kind of techniques for critical thinking.

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